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% To better understand which metrics and methods are meaningful in the domain of keyboards and especially when
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% To investigate whether or not solely the actuation force of individual keys can make a difference in terms of efficiency or satisfaction an ....
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\subsection{Keyboards and key switches}
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\subsection{Keyboards and Keyswitches}
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\subsubsection{Keyboard Models and Layouts}
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\label{sec:kb_layout}
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\begin{figure}[ht]
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\centering
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@ -15,12 +17,12 @@ Keyboards are well known input devices used to operate a computer. There are a
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variety of keyboard types and models available on the market, some of which can
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be seen in Figure \ref{fig:keyboard_models}. The obvious difference between
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those keyboards in Figure \ref{fig:keyboard_models} is their general
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appearance. What we see is mainly the shape of the enclosure and the keycaps,
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which are the rectangular pieces of plastic on top of the actual keyswitches
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which sometimes indicate which letter, number or symbol, also known as
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characters, a keypress should send to the computer. These keycaps are mainly
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made out of the two plastics \gls{ABS} and \gls{PBT} which primarily differ in
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feel, durability, cost and sound \parencite[8]{bassett_keycap}.
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appearance. The keyboards feature different enclosures and keycaps, which are
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the rectangular pieces of plastic on top of the actual keyswitches that
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sometimes indicate what letter, number or symbol, also known as characters, a
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keypress should send to the computer. These keycaps are mainly made out of the
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two plastics \gls{ABS} and \gls{PBT} which primarily differ in feel, durability,
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cost and sound \parencite[8]{bassett_keycap}.
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\begin{figure}[ht]
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\centering
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@ -31,16 +33,16 @@ feel, durability, cost and sound \parencite[8]{bassett_keycap}.
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\label{fig:keyboard_layouts}
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\end{figure}
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Nowadays, there are three main standards for the physical layout of keyboards
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namely ISO/IEC 9995 \cite{iso9995-2}, ANSI-INCITS 154-1988
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\cite{ansi-incits-154-1988} and JIS X 6002-1980 \cite{jis-x-6002-1980}, that
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propose slightly different arrangements of the keys and some even alter the
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shape of a few keys. Figure TODO\ref{fig:keyboard_layouts} shows the layouts
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defined by the three standards mentioned and shows the main differences. In
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addition to the physical layout, there are also various layouts concerning the
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mapping of the physical key to a character that is displayed by the
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computer. Most of the time, the mapping happens on the computer via software and
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therefore the choice of layout is not necessarily restricted by the physical
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Nowadays, there are three main standards that define the physical layout of a
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keyboard―ISO/IEC 9995 \cite{iso9995-2}, ANSI-INCITS 154-1988
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\cite{ansi-incits-154-1988} and JIS X 6002-1980 \cite{jis-x-6002-1980}. These
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layouts propose slightly different arrangements of the keys and some even alter
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the shape of a few keys entirely. Figure \ref{fig:keyboard_layouts} shows the
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layouts defined by the three standards mentioned and shows the main
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differences. In addition to the physical layout, there are also various layouts
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concerning the mapping of the physical key to a character that is displayed by
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the computer. Most of the time, the mapping happens on the computer via software
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and therefore the choice of layout is not necessarily restricted by the physical
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layout of the keyboard but rather a personal preference. As seen in Figure
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\ref{fig:keyboard_models}, there are also non standard physical layouts
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available which are often designed to improve the posture of the upper extremity
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@ -48,28 +50,36 @@ while typing to reduce the risk of injury or even assist in recovering from
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previous \gls{WRUED} \cite{ripat_ergo}. Those designs often split the keyboard
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in two halves to reduce ulnar deviation and some designs also allow tenting of
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the halves or provide a fixed tent which also reduces forearm pronation
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\cite{baker_ergo, rempel_ergo}. Besides the exterior design of the keyboard,
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there is another part of interest—the keyswitch. This component of a keyboard
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actually sends the signal that a key is pressed. There are different types of
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keyswitches available to date. The more commonly available ones are scissor
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switches and rubber dome switches which are both subsets of the membrane
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switches. Scissor switches are often found in keyboards that are integrated into
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notebooks while rubber dome switches are mostly used in workplace
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keyboards. Both variants use a rubber membrane with small domes underneath each
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key. When a key is pressed, the corresponding dome collapses and because the
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dome's inner wall is coated with a conductive material, closes an electrical
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circuit \cite{ergopedia_keyswitch, peery_3d_keyswitch}. Another type of switches
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are mechanical keyswitches. These switches are frequently used in gaming and
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high quality workplace keyboards as well as by enthusiast along with prosumers
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which build and then sell custom made keyboards to the latter audience
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\cite{bassett_keycap, ergopedia_keyswitch}. These keyswitches are composed of
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several mechanical parts which can be examined in Figure
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\ref{fig:mech_keyswitches_dissas}. The housing is made up of two parts, the
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bottom and top shell. The actual mechanism consists of two conductive plates,
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which when connected trigger a keypress, a stainless steel spring which defines
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how much force has to be applied to the switch to activate it and a stem which
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sits on top of the spring and separates the two plates. The shape of the stem,
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represented by the enlarged red lines in Figure
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\cite{baker_ergo, rempel_ergo}.
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\subsubsection{Membrane Keyswitch}
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\label{sec:mem_switch}
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Besides the exterior design of the keyboard, there is another part of
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interest—the keyswitch. This component of a keyboard actually sends the signal
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that a key is pressed. There are different types of keyswitches available to
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date. The more commonly available ones are scissor switches and rubber dome
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switches which are both subsets of the membrane switches. Scissor switches are
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often found in keyboards that are integrated into notebooks while rubber dome
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switches are mostly used in workplace keyboards. Both variants use a rubber
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membrane with small domes underneath each key. When a key is pressed, the
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corresponding dome collapses and because the dome's inner wall is coated with a
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conductive material, closes an electrical circuit \cite{ergopedia_keyswitch,
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peery_3d_keyswitch}.
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\subsubsection{Mechanical Keyswitch}
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\label{sec:mech_switch}
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Another type of switches are mechanical keyswitches. These switches are
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frequently used in gaming and high quality workplace keyboards as well as by
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enthusiast along with prosumers which build and then sell custom made keyboards
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to the latter audience \cite{bassett_keycap, ergopedia_keyswitch}. These
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keyswitches are composed of several mechanical parts which can be examined in
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Figure \ref{fig:mech_keyswitches_dissas}. The housing is made up of two parts,
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the bottom and top shell. The actual mechanism consists of two conductive
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plates, which when connected trigger a keypress, a stainless steel spring which
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defines how much force has to be applied to the switch to activate it and a stem
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which sits on top of the spring and separates the two plates. The shape of the
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stem, represented by the enlarged red lines in Figure
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\ref{fig:mech_keyswitches_dissas}, defines the haptic feedback produced by the
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keyswitch. When pressure is applied to the keycap, which is connected to the
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stem, the spring gets contracted and the stem moves downwards and thereby stops
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@ -154,7 +164,7 @@ typing speed, which could be more significant with greater variation of
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actuation force across tested keyboards \cite{loricchio_force_speed}.
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this thesis}
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this Thesis}
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Since this thesis is focused around keyboards and especially the relation
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between the actuation force of the keyswitch and efficiency (speed, error rate)
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and also the differences in satisfaction while using keyswitches with varying
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@ -186,7 +196,7 @@ capabilities for our experiment to reduce the effort required to equip each
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keyboard with the required keyswitches and in case a keyswitch fails during
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the experiment, decrease the time required to replace the faulty switch.
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\subsection{Measurement of typing related metrics}
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\subsection{Measurement of Typing Related Metrics}
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\label{sec:metrics}
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Nowadays, a common way to compare different methods concerning alphanumeric
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input in terms of efficiency is to use one of many typing test or word
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@ -195,7 +205,12 @@ software used and the experimental setup, users have to input different kinds of
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text, either for a predefined time or the time is measured till the whole text
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is transcribed \cite{chen_typing_test, hoffmann_typeright,
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fagarasanu_force_training, akagi_keyswitch, kim_typingforces,
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pereira_typing_test}. Text used should be easy to read for typists
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pereira_typing_test}.
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\subsubsection{Readability of Text}
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\label{sec:meas_fre}
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Text used should be easy to read for typists
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participating in studies that evaluate their performance and are therefore is
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chosen based on a metric called the \gls{FRE} which indicates the
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understandability of text \cite{fagarasanu_force_training,
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@ -232,6 +247,9 @@ classified according to the ranges given in Table \ref{tbl:fre_ranges} \cite{fle
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\end{tabular}
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\end{table}
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\subsubsection{Performance Metrics}
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\label{sec:meas_perf}
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There are several metrics to measure the performance of typists. Typical methods
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to measure speed are
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\begin{enumerate}
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@ -280,6 +298,9 @@ following two methods
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\end{equation}
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\end{enumerate}
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\subsubsection{Electromyography}
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\label{sec:meas_emg}
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In several other studies, in addition to the metrics mentioned so far, \gls{EMG}
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data was captured to evaluate the muscle activity or applied force while typing
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on completely different or modified hardware \cite{kim_typingforces,
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@ -312,29 +333,31 @@ convert applied force to an electrical signal. This signal usually gets
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amplified by specialized circuits and then further processed by a micro
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controller, computer or other hardware \cite{johnson_loadcell}.
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\subsubsection{Subjective Metrics}
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\label{sec:meas_sub}
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Lastly, subjective metrics e.g., comfort, usability, user experience, fatigue
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and satisfaction, are evaluated based on survey data collected after
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participants used different input methods \cite{kim_typingforces,
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bell_pauseboard, bufton_typingforces, pereira_typing_test, iso9241-411}. In
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their study, Kim et al. used a survey provided by the \gls{ISO} which is
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specifically designed to evaluate different keyboards in terms of user
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satisfaction, comfort and usability \cite{kim_typingforces, iso9241-411}. This
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survey poses a total of twelve questions concerning e.g., fatigue of specific
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regions of the upper extremity, general satisfaction with the keyboard,
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perceived precision and uniformity while typing, etc., which are presented on a
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seven-point Likert-scale \cite{iso9241-411}. Further, studies concerning the
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usability and user experience of different text entry methods used the \gls{UEQ}
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or \gls{UEQ-S} to evaluate the differences in those categories \cite{nguyen_ueq,
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olshevsky_ueq, gkoumas_ueq}. While the full \gls{UEQ} provides a total of 26
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questions divided into six scales (attractiveness, perspicuity, efficiency,
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dependability, stimulation and novelty), the \gls{UEQ-S} only features 8
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questions and two scales (pragmatic and hedonic quality). Because of the limited
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explanatory power of the \gls{UEQ-S}, it is recommended to only use it, if there
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is not enough time to complete the full \gls{UEQ} or if the participants of a
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study are required to rate several products in one session
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\cite{schrepp_ueq_handbook}.
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their study, Kim et al. used a modified version of the \gls{KCQ} provided by the
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\gls{ISO} which is specifically designed to evaluate different keyboards in
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terms of user satisfaction, comfort and usability \cite{kim_typingforces,
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iso9241-411}. This survey poses a total of twelve questions concerning e.g.,
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fatigue of specific regions of the upper extremity, general satisfaction with
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the keyboard, perceived precision and uniformity while typing, etc., which are
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presented on a seven-point Likert-scale \cite{iso9241-411}. Further, studies
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concerning the usability and user experience of different text entry methods
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used the \gls{UEQ} or \gls{UEQ-S} to evaluate the differences in those
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categories \cite{nguyen_ueq, olshevsky_ueq, gkoumas_ueq}. While the full
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\gls{UEQ} provides a total of 26 questions divided into six scales
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(attractiveness, perspicuity, efficiency, dependability, stimulation and
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novelty), the \gls{UEQ-S} only features 8 questions and two scales (pragmatic
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and hedonic quality). Because of the limited explanatory power of the
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\gls{UEQ-S}, it is recommended to only use it, if there is not enough time to
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complete the full \gls{UEQ} or if the participants of a study are required to
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rate several products in one session \cite{schrepp_ueq_handbook}.
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this thesis}
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this Thesis}
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Measuring metrics related to data entry tasks can be performed with the help
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several commercially available tools and equipment. Especially muscle activity
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has to be measured with appropriate tools and accurate placement of the
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@ -348,38 +371,85 @@ thereby reveal differences that cannot be easily acquired by a device or formula
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\cite{rowley_surveys}.
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\subsection{Crowdsourcing / Observer Bias}
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As shown by the previous research in Section \ref{sec:metrics}, it is common
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practice in research related to typing to present a text that has to be
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transcribed by the participant. Usually, the text was chosen by the researcher
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or already available through the used typing test software. If the
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understandability of text is of concern, the binary choice of, is understandable
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or not, made by the researcher could lead to a phenomenon called the observer
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bias \cite{hrob_observer, berger_observer}. Thus, the text could potentially be
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to difficult to understand for the participants if not evaluated with e.g. the
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\subsection{Observer Bias and a Possible Solution}
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As already discussed in Section \ref{sec:metrics}, it is common practice in
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research related to typing to present a text that has to be transcribed by the
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participant. Usually, the text was chosen by the researcher or already available
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through the used typing test software. If the understandability of text is of
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concern, the binary choice of, is understandable or not, made by the researcher
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could lead to a phenomenon called the observer bias \cite{hrob_observer,
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berger_observer, angrosino_observer}. Thus, the text could potentially be to
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difficult to understand for the participants if not evaluated with e.g. the
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\gls{FRE} or other adequate formulas. Further, if there is previous knowledge
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about the requested participants, the researcher could subconsciously select
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text that is familiar to, or well received by some of the subjects and could
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thereby conceivably influence the outcome \cite{hrob_observer, berger_observer}.
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The same problem arises, if the typing test software already provides such texts
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but the researcher has to select some of them for the experiment. Further, the
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difficulty of the provided texts should be verified to ensure accurate results
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across multiple treatments. A possible solution for this problem is
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crowdsourcing.
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thereby conceivably influence the outcome of the study\cite{hrob_observer,
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berger_observer}. The same problem arises, if the typing test software already
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provides such texts but the researcher has to select some of them for the
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experiment. Furthermore, the difficulty of the provided texts should be verified
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to ensure accurate results across multiple treatments. A possible solution to
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this problem is crowdsourcing. Howe describes crowdsourcing as the act of
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outsourcing a problem to a group of individuals that are voluntarily working
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together to solve it \parencite[1-11]{howe_crowd_book} \&
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\cite{howe_crowdsource, schenk_crowdsource}.
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Howe CONTINUE
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Observer bias can also occur while conducting the experiment when the researcher
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has to give instructions to the subject. Therefore, it is important to treat
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every participant equally by following a predefined procedure and minimize
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unnecessary interaction where possible to further minimize the risk of bias
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\parencite[674]{angrosino_observer}.
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\cite{howe_crowdsource}. If there are automated checks for text
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difficulty in place, this method completely excludes the researcher from the
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text selection process.
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this Thesis}
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Summarizing, even seemingly arbitrary decisions or actions can have a potential
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undesirable impact on the results of a study. If it is possible to implement
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automated checks for the suitability of text e.g., a platform that verifies
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submitted text based on \gls{FRE} scores, crowdsourcing could be used to
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completely exclude the researcher from the text selection process and therefore
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mitigate the risk of unwanted bias. In addition, the aspect of time in the
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preparation phase of a study could be another factor to consider crowdsourcing
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to acquire larger amounts of text with equal difficulty.
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\subsection{Strength of Individual Fingers}
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As already mentioned in Section \ref{sec:metrics}, the force applied to a
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keyswitch is the concern of multiple studies that evaluate the relation between
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keyboarding and \gls{WRUED}. Further, multiple studies came to the conclusion,
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that there is a significant discrepancy in strength between individual fingers
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\cite{bretz_finger, martin_force, baker_kinematics, dickson_finger}. Bretz et
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al. found, that when participants squeezed an object between thumb and finger,
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differences in applicable force between different fingers ranged from 1.6
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\gls{N} up to 25.9 \gls{N} (n=16) \cite{bretz_finger}. Dickson and Nicolle
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observed the effects of surgery on patients with rheumatoid hands. The pre and
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post surgery force of finger flexion was recorded and the post surgery results
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yielded a difference in flexion force, which is similar to the force required to
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actuate a keyswitch, that ranged from 1 \gls{N} to 4 \gls{N}
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\cite{dickson_finger}. Martin et al. measured applied average and peak force of
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individual digits while typing on a keyboard (n=10). The measured differences
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ranged from 0.10 \gls{N} to 1.49 \gls{N} for peak force and 0.01 \gls{N} to 0.08
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\gls{N} for mean force \cite{martin_force}.
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this thesis}
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\subsubsection{Relevance for this Thesis}
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The goal of this thesis is to evaluate the possible advantages of keyboards with
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non-uniform actuation forces. The fairly small difference of only 0.08 \gls{N} in mean
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force applied to keyboards recorded by Martin et al. \cite{martin_force} but
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rather big difference in finger strength measured by Bretz et
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al. \cite{bretz_finger} could indicate, that albeit the difference in strength,
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all fingers have to apply equal force to generate a keypress because of the
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uniform actuation force used in commercially available keyboards.
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% \subsection{Keyboard usage}
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% \subsection{Finger strength}
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% \subsection{Traditional methods}
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% \subsection{Alternative methodology}
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% - Available Methods (Impact vs load)
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% - Load cells
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\subsection{Summary}
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Since keyboards are still the most commonly used input method for data entry to
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date and so far all efforts to convince the mainstream to move from the
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standard, less ergonomic, physical layouts to split keyboards failed, further
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alternatives that could be easily implemented into manufacturing processes have
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to be explored, to counteract the rising risks for \gls{WRUED}. One factor
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related to \gls{WRUED} is the actuation force of the keyswitches
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\cite{bufton_typingforces, rempel_ergo, rempel_force,
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gerard_keyswitch}. Especially higher actuation forces have shown to be the
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reason for discomfort in the upper extremity. On the other hand, higher
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actuation forces also led to lower error rates while typing and therefore
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enhance user satisfaction and performance \cite{gerard_keyswitch}. With the help
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of several methods to measure typing relate metrics such as muscle activity
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(\gls{EMG}), error rates (\gls{CER} and \gls{UER}), typing speed (\gls{WPM}) and
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user satisfaction {\gls{UEQ} and \gls{KCQ}} it is feasible to evaluate possible
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alternative input methods to the more traditional keyboard.
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@ -27,6 +27,10 @@
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\newglossaryentry{N}{
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name={N},
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description={Newton: 1 N $ \approx $ 101.97 g}
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}
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\newglossaryentry{cN}{
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name={cN},
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|
@ -344,6 +344,17 @@ urldate = {2021-06-28}
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publisher = {Elsevier}
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}
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@article{rempel_force,
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title={The effect of keyboard keyswitch make force on applied force and finger flexor muscle activity},
|
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author={Rempel, David and Serina, Elaine and Klinenberg, Edward and Martin, Bernard J and Armstrong, Thomas J and Foulke, James A and Natarajan, Sivakumaran},
|
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journal={Ergonomics},
|
||||
volume={40},
|
||||
number={8},
|
||||
pages={800--808},
|
||||
year={1997},
|
||||
publisher={Taylor \& Francis}
|
||||
}
|
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|
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@article{peery_3d_keyswitch,
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title = {3D Printed Composite Keyboard Switches},
|
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journal = {Procedia Manufacturing},
|
||||
@ -716,4 +727,53 @@ title = {Crowdsourcing: What can be Outsourced to the Crowd, and Why ?}
|
||||
number={6},
|
||||
pages={1--4},
|
||||
year={2006}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@book{howe_crowd_book,
|
||||
title = {Crowdsourcing: How the Power of the Crowd is Driving the Future of Business},
|
||||
author = {Jeff Howe},
|
||||
publisher = {Random House Business},
|
||||
isbn = {1905211155, 9781905211159},
|
||||
year = {2006},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{angrosino_observer,
|
||||
title={Rethinking observation: From method to context},
|
||||
author={Angrosino, Michael V and Mays de P{\'e}rez, Kimberly A},
|
||||
journal={Handbook of qualitative research},
|
||||
volume={2},
|
||||
pages={673--702},
|
||||
year={2000}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{bretz_finger,
|
||||
title={Force measurement of hand and fingers},
|
||||
author={K{\'a}roly J{\'a}nos, Bretz and {\'A}kos, Jobb{\'a}gy and K{\'a}roly, Bretz},
|
||||
journal={Biomechanica Hungarica},
|
||||
volume={3},
|
||||
number={1},
|
||||
year={2010}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@article{baker_kinematics,
|
||||
title={Kinematics of the fingers and hands during computer keyboard use},
|
||||
author={Baker, Nancy A and Cham, Raki{\'e} and Cidboy, Erin Hale and Cook, James and Redfern, Mark S},
|
||||
journal={Clinical Biomechanics},
|
||||
volume={22},
|
||||
number={1},
|
||||
pages={34--43},
|
||||
year={2007},
|
||||
publisher={Elsevier}
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@article{dickson_finger,
|
||||
title={The assessment of hand function: Part 1—Measurement of Individual Digits},
|
||||
author={Dickson, RA and Nicolle, FV},
|
||||
journal={The Hand},
|
||||
volume={4},
|
||||
number={3},
|
||||
pages={207--214},
|
||||
year={1972},
|
||||
publisher={Elsevier}
|
||||
}
|
@ -18,6 +18,8 @@
|
||||
\usepackage[UKenglish]{babel}
|
||||
\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
|
||||
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
|
||||
\usepackage{kpfonts}
|
||||
% \usepackage{mathpazo}
|
||||
|
||||
% verbesserter Randausgleich
|
||||
\usepackage{microtype}
|
||||
|
@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
|
||||
Faculty of Computer Science\\ [7em]
|
||||
|
||||
\Large\textbf{
|
||||
Impact of adjusted, per key, actuation force on efficiency and satisfaction while using mechanical keyboards} \\
|
||||
Impact of Adjusted, per Key, Actuation Force on Efficiency and Satisfaction While Using Mechanical Keyboards} \\
|
||||
\end{center}
|
||||
|
||||
\vfill
|
||||
|
Loading…
x
Reference in New Issue
Block a user